In contrast, the Matrigel plug containing AZ67 displayed no functional vessels. upon treatment. Strikingly however, even the lowest dose of AZ67 demonstrated significant inhibition of angiogenesis in vivo. To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate that the process of angiogenesis can be disrupted by targeting PFKFB3 independently of glycolysis inhibition. gene expression levels are upregulated in response to growth factors (VEGF, PDGF, FGF2, insulin) [22,23], proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-, IL-, TGF-1) [24,25,26], hypoxia [27,28], or different stress stimuli [29]. However, under different stimuli, the mechanisms involved in PFKFB3 regulation in different cell types differ. With accumulating knowledge of PFKFB3 in angiogenesis, there has been an increased interest in the identification and development of PFKFB3 inhibitors. 3PO, the most well-studied, and its derivatives PFK15 and PFK158, belong to this class. A range of biological activities have been attributed to these compounds, including reduction of F-2,6-P2 levels, inhibition of glucose uptake and lactate production, reduction in glycolytic flux, and induction of apoptosis in cancer cell lines both in vitro Remdesivir and in vivo [30,31]. Inhibition of EC proliferation and migration, resulting in reduced vessel sprouting in EC spheroids, zebrafish embryos, and the postnatal mouse retina, have all been attributed to 3PO [30,32]. However, questions were raised early on in the literature as to whether all these effects are attributable solely to PFKFB3 inhibition. Research groups have disputed that 3PO acts as a PFKFB3 inhibitor, as this compound is inactive in a PFKFB3 kinase assay, a lack of crystal structure could not confirm binding [33], and cytotoxicity could not be distinguished from glycolytic cellular activity for the Remdesivir concentrations used [34]. Our group has clearly reported that there is no binding between 3PO and the PFKFB3 protein [35]. PFK15 has shown a much higher IC50 towards the PFKFB3 enzyme compared to what has been reported (IC50 1000 M versus 0.2 M), while PFK158 has no effect on PFKFB3 enzymatic activity [36]. All in all, reported data on PFKFB3 inhibition rely on compounds with low specificity so that additional off targets could not be ruled out. Therefore, in this present study, we used the small molecule AZ67, a bona fide PFKFB3 inhibitor with high potency and selectivity for this Remdesivir target. By using isothermal titration calorimetry, we demonstrated binding of AZ67 to PFKFB3. Importantly, we showed that targeting PFKFB3 leads to angiogenesis inhibition in vitro and in vivo, independently of glycolysis inhibition. However, it was surprising that all these effects occurred with no impact on EC proliferation or migration abilities, thus Remdesivir providing novel insights into the angiogenesis inhibition process. 2. Results 2.1. AZ67 Binds to Human Recombinant PFKFB3 Enzyme Considering the latest finding that 3PO is not a PFKFB3 inhibitor [35], we aimed to demonstrate that AZ67 binds to PFKFB3. By Remdesivir using isothermal titration calorimetry, we verified and characterized the binding between AZ67 and PFKFB3. Figure 1 demonstrates a raw thermogram (top panel), and integrated data, indicating clear binding and saturation towards the end of the assay run. Mean values (SEM) for the KD (168.01 2.97 nM), Rabbit polyclonal to AKAP5 N-value (1.077 0.047) and binding enthalpy (?31.19 1.08 kcal/mol), reveal that the binding had a dissociation constant in the nanomolar range, with a 1:1 stoichiometry between AZ67 and the PFKFB3-monomers (thus 1 AZ67 molecule binding to 1 1 PFKFB3 monomer). Open in a separate window Figure 1 AZ67 binds to PFKFB3. Binding of AZ67 to.